Relevance of the Theme

Understanding the Philosophical Schools throughout history is an essential milestone for the discipline of Philosophy. This study is indispensable for conducting an accurate assessment of the crucial developments and changes in the way humanity understands itself, the world, and the universe.

Philosophical Schools are like currents of thought immersed in the flow of time. Each School represents a unique and intricate response to the complexity of reality. By learning about them, students are challenged to refine their own worldviews and to question the underlying assumptions of contemporary beliefs.

Contextualization

The position of the Philosophical Schools in our curriculum is not accidental. It follows a historical order from Antiquity to the present time. This intentional chronology allows students to trace philosophical developments over the centuries and make meaningful connections between ideas from different eras.

Following the curriculum, our discussion on the Philosophical Schools follows the study of related disciplines - such as History, Literature, and Arts. These topics have an organic interdependence, creating a holistic learning environment.

Mastering the Philosophical Schools prepares students not only to engage in deep intellectual discussions but also to become more informed and reflective world citizens. It is a fundamental step in their journey of self-discovery and understanding of the universe that surrounds them.

Theoretical Development

Components

• Ancient School: The initial period of philosophy, where we begin to appreciate the first thinkers like Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Each of them represented the philosophical life in different approaches and left a legacy that shaped Western thought.

  • The School of Miletus introduced the concept of "Arché", or the "primary substance", the first element of all existing matter.
  • Socrates, without having a formal school, is considered the father of Western philosophy and his method of questioning - the maieutic - deeply influenced subsequent thought.
  • Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum are examples of schools that emerged at this time, each reflecting distinct ideas and practices.

• Medieval School: This is the period in history where philosophy was intrinsically linked to Christian theology. Thinkers of this time, such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, sought to harmonize secular knowledge with religious faith.

  • Augustine of Hippo introduced the notion of divine illumination, the idea that human understanding is only possible through divine intervention.
  • Thomas Aquinas, on the other hand, applied logical methods to reconcile faith and reason.

• Modern School: This period, initiated with the Renaissance and the era of Reformation, is marked by a radical change in philosophical thought. Philosophers of this era sought to understand human nature and the world from a new perspective. Notable names include Descartes, Hume, and Kant.

  • René Descartes, with his famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" in methodical doubt, emphasized the primacy of the thinking subject.
  • David Hume, on the other hand, argued that all knowledge comes from sensory experience, a theory known as empiricism.
  • Immanuel Kant merged rationalism and empiricism, laying the foundations for what is known as German Idealism.

• Contemporary School: This is the era we live in. It witnesses a multiplicity of approaches and theories on a wide variety of philosophical topics, from language to existence.

  • Ludwig Wittgenstein revolutionized the philosophy of language, arguing that meaning is determined by the context of use.
  • Jean-Paul Sartre, a central figure of Existentialism, argued that human existence precedes essence, and that freedom is the fundamental quality of human existence.
  • Analytical Philosophy, whose main exponents are Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein, redefined the discipline, arguing that philosophical problems should be analyzed linguistically.

Key Terms

• Arché: The original and eternal principle that governs the universe, a fundamental notion in the School of Miletus.
• Maieutic: The Socratic process of questioning and dialogue, used to help people recognize and rectify their own beliefs.
• Divine Illumination: The idea that truth is revealed to humans by divine intervention.
• Rationalism: An approach to understanding the world that emphasizes reason and deduction, as opposed to experience or in conjunction with it.
• Empiricism: The theory that all knowledge comes from sensory experience, i.e., that the mind is originally empty (tabula rasa) and acquires knowledge through experience.

Examples and Cases

• Plato's Cave: An allegory that represents the pursuit of knowledge. In the allegory, prisoners are chained in a cave, seeing only the shadows projected on the wall. They mistake these shadows for reality, until one of them is freed and experiences the real world outside.
• Descartes' Methodical Doubt: Descartes begins his path to truth by seeking to doubt everything he believed to be true. He argues that if he can doubt something, then he must ignore it. Thus, he concludes that the only thing he cannot doubt is his own existence, the famous "I think, therefore I am".
• Kant's Categorical Imperative: In his work "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals", Kant proposes the principle of the categorical imperative as the only possible basis for morality. According to this principle, "act only according to a maxim such that you can at the same time will that it become a universal law". That is, only do what, if everyone did it, there would be no contradiction.
• Sartre's Existentialism: For Sartre, man lives in absolute freedom, without prior determinations. He is condemned to be free, but this freedom also implies a responsibility for his actions. Existence precedes essence, the individual exists first and defines himself through his actions.
• Analytical Philosophy of Wittgenstein: Wittgenstein argued that philosophical statements were the result of confusions in language. To solve these problems, he believed it was necessary to clarify the meaning of the terms used. For this, he proposed "logical analysis", an approach that seeks to understand the meaning of words through their logical relationships.

Detailed Summary

Relevant Points

• Ancient School: Represented the origin of Western philosophy, with highlights for figures such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, each with their unique and sometimes divergent contributions. Socrates is known for his philosophical method, the maieutic, while Plato and Aristotle founded the influential Academy and Lyceum, respectively.

• Medieval School: A period where philosophy deeply intertwined with Christian theology. Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas were the main thinkers of this time, with Augustine introducing the concept of divine illumination and Aquinas trying to reconcile faith and reason.

• Modern School: A time of philosophical revolution with the Renaissance and Reformation. This period brought to the fore names like Descartes, Hume, and Kant, with their theories revolving around human nature and existence itself.

• Contemporary School: Currently, philosophy is characterized by a great diversity of perspectives. Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language, Sartre's Existentialism, and the Analytical Philosophy of Russell and Wittgenstein are just a few examples of the many contemporary approaches.

Conclusions

• Philosophy is a discipline in constant evolution, reflecting social, political, and cultural changes and advancements in different eras.
• The study of Philosophical Schools provides a deeper understanding of the ideas that have shaped and continue to shape the world we live in.
• Philosophy is not just a distant academic discipline, it is linked to everyday life, questioning and illuminating aspects of our existence that often go unnoticed.

Exercises

1. Ancient School: Describe the concept of "Arché" introduced by the School of Miletus. How did this concept influence subsequent thought?

2. Medieval School: Compare the perspectives of Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas on the relationship between faith and reason. In what ways do they differ and in what aspects do their ideas resemble each other?

3. Modern and Contemporary School: Analyze the contributions of two of the studied philosophers (for example, Descartes, Hume, Kant, Wittgenstein, Sartre, Russell) and how their ideas continue to influence philosophical thought today.