(Originais Teachy 2025) - Question Hard of History

During the late Middle Ages and the dawn of the Modern Age, Europe experienced significant shifts in its power dynamics with the rise of Nation-States. This transition was marked by the strengthening of the centralized authority of monarchs and the establishment of clear territorial boundaries. Reflecting on the impact of these changes on contemporary politics, how did the emergence of Nation-States shape the understanding of sovereignty and the political landscape of European countries during that period?

During the Late Antiquity period, the Western Roman Empire faced a series of challenges that culminated in its fall, leaving a legacy of conflicts and transformations for the medieval period. Contemporary historians point out that the complex relationship with the barbarian peoples not only reflected the military and economic pressure on the empire but also evidenced the social and cultural transformation that accompanied the expansion of Christianity. In 'The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' Edward Gibbon highlights: 'the introduction of Christianity had ambiguous effects on Roman life and was one of the main causes of the Empire's decline.' Considering the presented context and the interdisciplinarity between History and Philosophy, and reflecting on the influence of Christian thought in Western Roman society and the determining factors for the empire's fall, analyze the following excerpt from Saint Augustine, one of the main exponents of Christian thought at the time: 'The City of God must oppose the City of Men, and what is praiseworthy in the city opposes what is condemnable in the City of Men.' Based on Augustinian thought and historical knowledge about the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, discuss how the advancement of Christianity and Augustine's dualistic interpretation contributed to the perception of crisis within Roman society and to the redefinition of cultural and territorial boundaries in the transition period to the Middle Ages.

The ancient kingdoms of Kush, Axum, and Ghana were pivotal in shaping the history of Africa during ancient and medieval times, each bringing its own unique attributes and impact on trade routes and political affairs in the region. The Kingdom of Kush is especially notable for its relationship with Egypt and its expertise in metallurgy. Meanwhile, Axum functioned as a key trade hub that linked the Roman Empire with the East. Ghana, on the other hand, was renowned for its immense wealth in gold and its advanced political organisation. With this background in mind, which of the following options best illustrates how these kingdoms shaped international trade relations in ancient times and the Middle Ages?